This natural variation affords the opportunity to test relevant issues about learning and brain plasticity, such as the presence of critical periods, but it also causes crucial methodological problems, such as finding homogeneous study groups of with individuals sharing equivalent linguistic experiences. In contrast to learning a first language, the acquisition of a second language comes in several different forms: second language learners vary along some fundamental dimensions such as age of acquisition, amount of exposure, motivation, type of learning experience, and also the degree of similarity between their two languages. Methodological considerations in bilingualism research These differences in learning contexts and proficiency level pose methodological challenges in bilingual studies ( BOX 1). Additionally, among bilinguals, individuals can show considerable variation in the proficiency levels attained in their languages: whereas some show equal proficiency in both languages, others have a clear dominance in one of their languages 1. Alternatively, they can learn a second language later in life under formal instruction, in an immersion environment as a result of immigration, or in one of many other situations (such individuals are known as successive bilinguals). People can learn two languages from birth (such individuals are known as simultaneous bilinguals, as both languages are learned at the same time). Indeed, the acquisition of two languages may occur in many different contexts. Bilingualism is, however, difficult to define, as it encompasses a broad typology of speakers. The pervasive presence of bilingualism shows that humans can learn two languages without apparent difficulty.
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